Faculty of Applied Sciences

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Anthropometric profile and food consumption patterns of an emerging middle income community in Umlazi
(2017) Memela, Sinenhlanhla Ntokozo; Napier, Carin E.
Introduction: The nutrition transition is a global phenomenon affected by developing economic prosperity. ‘Nutrition transition’ may be defined as changes in dietary patterns and nutrient intakes occurring in individuals, families, groups of people or whole populations when the food environment and other circumstances change. Post-1994 democratic elections in South Africa, economic laws called for the de-racialization of the economy. As a result of the annulment of the apartheid laws in the 1990s entrepreneurial opportunities became available for black people. Based on the 2011 Census, the middle class constituted 8.3 million (17%) out of the 51 million population in South Africa. Blacks made up 51%, whites 34%, coloureds 9% and Indians 6%. This is a vast difference from two decades prior to this when blacks made up only 3.3% of the population, with coloureds making up 9.1% and Indians 18.5%. In a number of Sub-Saharan African studies obesity has been shown to have a significant link to socio-economic status determined by access to water and electricity, smaller numbers of members residing in one household and increased amounts of money spent on food among other factors, which all promote a tendency to leading a more Westernised lifestyle. The main objective of the study was to determine the anthropometric status and analyse the food consumption of a community of emerging middle income status in Umlazi Township (Ward 84) outside Durban in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Methods: This study had a sample size of n=250 adult men (n=56) and women (n=194) who were heads of households or primary caregivers above the age of 19 years old with households receiving a total household income of more than R100 000.00 per annum/ more than R8000.00 per month. The study was quantitative and descriptive in nature with different tools used to measure the sample population. These included waist circumference and height and weight measurement to determine BMI and WHtR. A socio-demographic questionnaire was completed where the multi-dimensional poverty index (MPI) was established; a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and three 24-hour food recall were also administered to all participants; one weekend day recall and two weekday recalls. Data were analysed on SPSS and nutrient analysis done through Food Finder Version 3 Software and compared to the World Health Organisation standards recommendations for optimal health. Results: The mean age of the group was 52 years old. Slightly more than half (51.6%; n=129) of the population was unemployed. Retired participants made up 27.2% (n=68) of the population. The majority (80%) of the households indicated that between one to three members contributed to the total household income. The MPI of the Ward 84 community amounted to 9.09. The prevalence of obesity was 37.59% (n=21) among men and 76.80% (n=149) for women. Women had a higher prevalence of risk factors linked to non-communicable diseases than men. Mineral and fat soluble vitamin intake was deficient; however protein and carbohydrates were consumed in excess with means of 187.70% and 111.43% respectively. Top 20 foods consumed lists indicated that little fruit or vegetables were consumed. The average food variety score was medium indicating the consumption of between >30 but <60 different foods across the total population. A positive relationship of statistical significance was found between food variety score and income (p=0.007). Conclusion: The Ward 84 community consisted of an ageing population with households mostly supported by another member’s income from within or outside the household. The adults had sufficient education to have secured promotions in the employment arena and could afford a lifestyle similar to that of those who had always been more privileged. Although the Umlazi residents benefited from good housing and infrastructure and appeared to have averted poverty, the prevalence of overnutrition malnutrition was high and linked with an excessive intake of macronutrients. Majority (70%) of the community of Ward 84 is ‘food secure’ as indicated by the number of participants’ households indicating never having a shortage of money to buy food. This correlates negatively with the high prevalence of overweight and obesity (BMI) (p=-0.029). According to literature a persistent issue in black communities is the acceptance of an overweight body image being perceived as ‘healthy’ and an indicator of affluence. This community appears to be in the 4th stage/ pattern of the nutrition transition. It appears that a ‘westernised diet’ and lifestyle is more accessible and is embraced by this urban community as described in various literature and seen in the top 20 foods lists compiled from the 24 hour recalls. There is some oversight regarding the nutrient quality of a varied diet and achieving energy balance with macronutrient intake linked to informed nutritional choices. Suggested interventions could include the dissemination of information regarding nutrition and practical suggestions to achieve energy balance. In addition, future research could investigate the prospects of introducing participation in urban agriculture, investigate the issue of physical activity, and foster an environment for more physical activity and increase availability and access to micronutrient dense foods and investigate the development of a body mass index specifically for the black African population.
Dietary diversity and nutritional status of pregnant women attending an ante-natal clinic in KZN
(2018) Warriner, Kelly Michelle; Napier, Carin E.; Grobbelaar, Hendrina Helena
Aim: This research aimed to establish the socio-demographic background, nutritional status, as well as food intake patterns of pregnant women in the first trimester of pregnancy attending an antenatal clinic in Cato Manor, Durban. This study formed part of the first phase of the MRC approved study “A multi-staged multi-disciplinary healthcare approach in reducing maternal morbidity and mortality rates in a selected district in KwaZulu-Natal”, aimed at pregnant women and planned by the Faculty of Health Sciences at the Durban University of Technology. The research was conducted in South Africa in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. This study was conducted in a primary health care clinic (PHC) in Cato Manor which falls under the auspices of the eThekwini municipality. The total sample (n=300) as predetermined by the MRC approved study included all pregnant women presenting at the PHC for their first antenatal visit over a designated period until the total sample size has been reached. These women were allocated into 3 groups: Group 1 compromised of the antenatal intervention group (n=100). A total of 139 pregnant women in the first trimester of pregnancy were eligible to be accepted to be a part of the study; however, due to a low return rate and incomplete questionnaires, a final sample of 100 women were included in the study and their data was used. Methods: A valid and relevant socio-demographic questionnaire was completed in a one-on-one interview situation wherein participants would be asked to tick relevant answers pertaining to the question at hand. Information regarding income, education level, religious influences and any other questions relating to the socio demographic background of the participants were included in the questionnaire. A valid and reliable food frequency questionnaire was also completed in a one-on-one interview situation whereby participants would be asked to tick relevant answers pertaining to the question at hand, in order to determine the food variety and food diversity intake of the participants. Participants’ dietary intake was determined through the completion of two x 24- hour recall questionnaires which were conducted in an interview situation. The two x 24-hour recall questionnaires were completed pertaining to the participant’s dietary intake during the week as well as to the participants’ dietary intake on a weekend day. Finally, participants’ anthropometric measurements were obtained through the use of a scale and stadiometer in order to measure the weight and height, respectively, of each participant and calculate the BMI (body Mass Index) of each participant. All measurements were conducted twice and the average of the two figures was used in order to ensure accuracy. Results: The majority of the participants’ role in the family was that of a daughter (72%) and they lived in a squatter camp (48%). In addition, 57% of participants shared a house with between two and five other people and the majority lived in a brick house (51%) with more than two rooms (63%). Most of the women were unemployed at the time of research (65%) and received a total monthly income of
The effect of seasonal food variety and dietary diversity on the nutritional status of a rural community in KZN
(2014-08-07) Nsele, Nelisiwe; Napier, Carin E.
Introduction: Dietary diversity is an indicator of access and measurement of household food security as it relates to income, location and seasonality. Dietary diversity is measured by physically counting the number of individual foods as well as food groups consumed over a given reference period. When dietary diversity is accurately measured, nutrient adequacy will be easily predicted. In order to measure dietary diversity accurately, it is important to determine household food security. Insufficient food and resources often result in food insecurity which leads to little or no dietary diversity. Poor populations suffer most from achieving dietary diversity because they consume a standard diet based on starchy staple food with limited fruits and vegetables resulting in multiple nutrient deficiencies. Rural communities rely on seasonal food variety in order to obtain fruits and vegetables needed by the body to limit nutrient deficiencies. Some seasons are more productive than others. Rural communities also use various coping strategies to deal with food insecurity in all four seasons. High levels of unemployment as well as a lack of nutrition education results in most rural households unable to cater for dietary diversity. Aim: The aim of the study is to determine the effect of seasonal food variety, dietary diversity and nutrient adequacy on the nutritional status of women in rural areas. Method: A hundred women in this community were weighed and measured and BMI determined and classified according to the WHO cut-off points for BMI. Waist circumference was measured in order to determine the waist-to-height ratio indication risk of metabolic syndrome. Twenty four hour recall questionnaires were used to determine actual intake compared to dietary reference intake (DRIs). Food Frequency Questionnaires for a period of seven days were completed captured and analysed using the SPSS version for descriptive statistics in order to determine food diversity. Coping strategies were determined by Focus Group interviews with community members in order to identify the various strategies used in time of food shortages. The severity of these strategies was determined by the community. Seasonal food consumption patterns and dietary intake behaviour were assessed over the four seasons. The highest frequency score (7) x severity weight (1-4) x10 strategies = maximum score of 140. Thus the higher the score the more food insecure the community is. Results: Food production from crops differs in different seasons. Food insecurity is high in summer and autumn due to a low number of food items harvested from crops. The community cope less in summer and autumn due to less crops available. The community is more food insecure in spring and winter due to the high number of food items harvested from crops. The community cope better in winter and spring due to the high level of available crops. Anthropometric measurements indicated that 41.2% of women between 31 and 50 and 49% of women between 51 and 70 years of age had a BMI of 30 and above. About 44% of total women are obese and 29% are pre obese. Only 26% had a normal weight. The 24 hour recall analysis indicates that the high level of obesity is due to the fact that a high number of participants consume large amount of carbohydrates every day. Conclusion: Overall results in this study indicated that this rural community is food insecure, on a higher level during summer and autumn, which leads to the consumption of undiversified diets. The women are malnourished and obese with a risk of metabolic syndrome. The information obtained in this study can be used to formulate strategies to develop interventions that can be used to access sufficient food in rural area in order to improve food insecurity, dietary diversity and, therefore, nutrient adequacy.
Extraction of aromatic solvents from reformates and paint solvent wastes during ionic liquids
(2016) Mabaso, Mbongeni Hezekia; Redhi, Gyanasivan Govindsamy; Moodley, K. G.
The work conducted in this study comprised three aspects: syntheses, characterizations, and multi-component liquid-liquid extractions. The main objectives of the project were: (1) to evaluate the efficacy and efficiency of ionic liquids to extract aromatic components from catalytic reformates and paint solvent wastes, and (2) to validate the method(s) used in this project to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the aromatic molecules (BTEX) in multi-component mixtures. Therefore, this research critically investigated the major effects of the chosen ionic liquids as extractive solvents for the recovery of BTEX components from model and industrial organic mixtures. The project was concerned with the nature of solvents currently used in most industries for the separation by extraction of aromatic hydrocarbons from non-aqueous or organic mixtures. Most solvents currently employed for this purpose are highly volatile; hence they contribute significantly towards environment pollution. In addition, the extraction efficiency of these conventional solvents is limited only to mixtures containing aromatic hydrocarbons of 20% or more. Furthermore, conventional solvents are organic compounds which are generally toxic, flammable, and expensive to recover or regenerate from extract phases due to methods which involve several steps. In addition, they demand high energy input for the distillation steps. used in the analysis of aromatic components were evaluated for validity. According to the literature no such work was carried out by previous researchers. The study targeted four ionic liquids, namely, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ethyl sulphate [EMIM][ESO4], 1-ethyl-3-methylpyridinium ethyl sulphate [EMpy][ESO4], 1- Butyl-1-methyl-2-pyrrolidonium bromide [BNMP][Br], and 1,1-Dimethyl-2- pyrrolidonium iodide [MNMP][I] in an attempt to address this concern. These ionic liquids were synthesized and characterized in our laboratories using previously accepted methods. After synthesis and purification, they were characterized by techniques including FTIR, 1H-NMR, and 13C-NMR. The densities and moisture content of both the synthesized and standard ionic liquids were also determined using density meters and Karl-Fischer apparatus, respectively. The extractions were carried out on both the model and industrial mixtures using ionic liquids. Each ionic liquid was mixed with a target mixture in a water-jacketed vessel and then stirred vigorously at constant temperature achieved by a thermostatically controlled water-bath. After a selected period of time the operation was stopped and the resulting mixture was left to stand overnight to allow phase equilibration to be reached. The two phases were then separated and analyzed for the content of individual aromatic components in each phase using GC-FID calibrated with external standards of the components present in the mixtures being investigated. According to the results obtained from the synthesis and characterization methods the percentages yield of ionic liquids were reasonably high (> 95%). In addition, spectral studies showed high purity with fewer traces of impurities based on the observed relative intensities. Results from GC-FID indicated a relatively lower concentration of aliphatic hydrocarbons in the extract phase. On the other hand, the concentrations of aromatic II components in the extract phase were relatively higher than those of aliphatic hydrocarbons. The results obtained from the three extraction stages showed the total recovery of greater than 50% for the aromatic components. This suggests that at least six extraction stages would be required in order to achieve a total recovery of 100% aromatic components which is an indication of good efficiency. Also noticeable was that the first extraction stages for all ionic liquids recovery values were much higher than those values obtained from successive stages which showed approximately the same extraction results. In most experiments, 1-ethyl-3-methylpyridinium ethyl sulphate gave higher recovery values than the other three ionic liquids. It was also noted that the recovery values obtained from the extractions performed on model mixtures of the entire concentration range (0.5 – 25%) of individual aromatic components did not show any significant difference. Proportional difference in recoveries occurred across the entire concentration range of model mixtures. The results also indicated that the solubility of aromatic hydrocarbons in the ionic liquids decreases in the order: benzene > toluene > ethyl benzene >xylenes. This phenomenon is attributed to a decrease in π-π, cation- π, cation- anion interactions occurring between the ionic liquid and each of the aromatic molecules in this order. The recovery values for BTEX ranged from 80 to 120 % by volume for the three extraction stages. This is in line with results previous research studies carried out on liquid-liquid extractions involving ternary systems containing only one aromatic component in each mixture. Therefore this study shows that ionic liquids are capable extraction solvents for simultaneous recovery of the aromatic components from any organic mixtures containing low to high BTEX concentrations. In addition, the outcomes of this project have proved that ionic liquids are economically viable as potential extraction solvents since they can be easily recycled and reusable many times without any noticeable degradation. The results of this study are envisaged to make significant contributions to the current research efforts aimed at achieving greener environments and minimization of global warming. The findings of this project are also geared to boost the economy of our country through job creation using economically viable methods.
Fishing and fish consumption contributing to the nutrient profile, dietary diversity and food security of adult caregivers in a coastal community in Rivers State, southern Nigeria
(2019-06) Legbara, Kadi Prudence; Napier, Carin E.; Hart, A.
Introduction: The contribution of fishing practices and fish consumption to food and nutrition security cannot be over emphasized, particularly where large numbers of people are poor. Nutrition research has identified fish and fishery products as key components of human nutrition as well as one of the essential foods to incorporate into daily dietary food consumption based on its potential health benefits. These benefits have promoted the consumption of fish in recent times. Fish contains proteins, vitamins and fats (Omega 3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids) (PUFAs) among other nutrients (Domingo 2016: 979). Recently, there has been a notable increase in the harvesting of wild stocks of fish and shellfish. Oceans are currently at their maximum sustainable yields to cope with the world’s growing population and the demand for fish and shellfish. Overexploitation and the use of harmful chemicals used in harvesting fish and oil exploitation are some of the core reasons for the global decline of fish. These factors pose a threat to the ecological health of marine resources (Bennette and Dearden 2014: 107) and the economy of low-income countries whose livelihood largely depends on fishing for household and national food security sources (Sowman and Cardoso 2010: 1164). In the research community of Buguma, the decline of the fish population is attributed to the corrosion of pipelines, sabotage and mishandling of oil production operations. The petroleum and gas/oil products from this mismanagement find access directly into the rivers and creeks. The residue from these substances settles on the ocean floor, endangering the ecosystem by killing marine life such as fish and seafood. To this end, food and nutrition insecurity have become evident in the community as livelihoods are dependent on fishing and fish is a primary source of protein. Food insecurity is further aggravated by the high rate of unemployment and low educational attainment. The households are left to apply certain strategies to cope with household food shortfalls. Having to employ certain strategies to cope with food insecurity, negatively affects nutrient adequacy. Thus, inadequate nutrient intake and imbalances have resulted in poor health outcomes and malnutrition. Aim: The study aim was to determine the fishing practices and fish consumption contributing to the nutrient profile, dietary diversity and food security of adult caregivers in a coastal community. Methodology: Two hundred and forty-seven respondents were selected using a multi-stage sampling method. The sample size was calculated using a power calculation indicating that 250 respondents represents a reliable sample out of which 247 respondents completed the research instruments. Sampling procedures were multistage (cluster and random) sampling. The study was descriptive and quantitative in nature. Research tools used to collect data were a sociodemographic questionnaire, a fishing practices questionnaire, a coping strategies questionnaire, a food frequency questionnaire, 3x24-hour dietary recall questionnaires and an anthropometric measurement questionnaire. Food frequency and food security coping strategies questionnaires were compiled through focus group discussions to establish the relevant foods consumed and the respondents were interviewed for the socio-demographic, food frequency, food security coping strategies and fishing practices data. All the respondents were also weighed and measured in order to determine Body Mass Index (BMI), Waist Circumference (WC), Waist to Height Ratio (WHtR) and Blood Pressure (BP) classified in terms of World Health Organization (WHO) reference cut-off points. Socio-demographics, fishing practices, coping strategies and food frequency data were captured on Excel spread sheets and analyzed for descriptive statistics using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 24.0. Data from the 24-hour recall was captured and analyzed for nutrient analysis using the MRC Food Finder® version 3.0 software and comparisons were made to the recommended nutrient standards by the World Health Organization. Results: The mean age group was 31-50 years old. Sixty-one-point one percent (n=151) of the respondents were females and males made up 38.9% (n=96). Most of the fish caught by the respondents was used for consumption (64.0%; n=126) and the rest was used for income generation (36.0%; n=71). The community had on average a secondary school education (55.5%; n=137) and recorded high rates of unemployment (80.2%; n=198) with 62.3% (n=76) actively looking for employment. The respondents indicated that between one person (47.8%; n=118) and two people (46.2%; n=114) contributed to household income. Thirty-three-point two percent (n=82) had an average income of #21,000 to #30,000 (Rand value: R3100-R4000), while 25.5% had a monthly income of #31,000 to #40,000 (Rand value: R4100-R5000), accommodating six persons (42.1%; n=104) and four persons (22.3%; n=55) in the household. Thirty-seven-point seven percent (n=93) and 25.5% (n=63) respectively complained that the household “sometimes” and “always” had insufficient funds to buy food. This had led households to adopt certain coping strategies to combat food shortages. The most frequently used strategies per mean were: “relying on less expensive or preferred foods” (11.47 ±7.949), “limiting portion size” (9.73 ±2.593) and “restricting consumption by adults in order for children to eat” (8.70 ±6.628). The negative effect of applying these coping strategies adversely compromised nutrient adequacy. The 20 top consumed foods showed consumption of more energy dense foods and less fruits and vegetables. The Food Variety Score (FVS) indicated that 51 different individual food items with mean ±SD of 20.83. (±6.546) from all food groups were consumed. Vitamin K, Biotin, pantothenate, calcium, riboflavin and thiamine were below DRIs recommendation cutting across all age groups and genders. Inappropriate imbalances in food intake reflected in BMI, WC and WHtR. The mean BMI for men (25.07kg/m2) and women (27.66kg/m2) fells into the overweight category with a mean average of 26.36kg/m2 for both genders and age groups while only women (95.46cm) were majorly found to be at risk for an elevated WC/ central obesity per mean average. The WHtR at risk factor affected the female gender (88.70%; n=133, 19-50 years and 88.90%; n=18, 51+ years old) compared to their male (44.4%; n=78, 19-50 years and 61.1%; n=18, 51+years) counterparts. Mean high BP for systolic (146.9mmHg) and diastolic (92.2mmHg) BP occurred in women 51+ years old. Conclusion: This research revealed inappropriate eating patterns and increased risk of developing NCDs. The 20 top foods consumed showed consumption of mostly macronutrients and limited consumption of fruits and vegetables across both genders and all age groups. Overweight, at risk for WC and WHtR and High Blood Pressure (HBP) were an indication of the presence of NCDs. Food insecurity resulting from a jeopardized fishing livelihood, high levels of unemployment and low educational attainment were the main causes of a compromised nutritional status in the research community. The introduction of nutrition education and an alternative means of livelihood will assist in addressing the current food and nutrition insecurity.
Food consumption patterns and nutritional risks of women in low and middle income communities in KwaNdengenzi, KwaZulu-Natal
(2018) Gumede, Sthembile; Napier, Carin E.
Food consumption patterns have changed dramatically in the recent times, with traditional diets being replaced by so-called “westernised diets” and leading to nutritional risks such as malnutrition. Contributing factors are urbanisation, climate change, agricultural produce supply (food demand is greater than produce supply) and rising prices, to name but a few. The food security status is also in question as more and more South African households are said to be living in poverty and consequently undernourished even though the country was found to be nutritionally stable compared to previous years. Unemployment and lack of nutrition education also have an impact on communities, in terms of the food being purchased and consumed. The study was conducted to determine the socio-demographic status, food consumption patterns and nutritional risk of a low-income and middle-income community that resides in KwaNdengezi Township in KwaZulu-Natal. A sample of two hundred and fifty eight participants was required for the study. The households in both the north and south of KwaNdengezi Township were randomly selected by using the number of roads listed in the eThekwini municipality map. A sample of 130 households per area was targeted. The required number of households was selected by dividing the number of identified roads resulting in three households targeted in each of the 39 roads in the north section and five households in 26 roads in the south section being targeted. Upon the agreement by participants, the study was conducted where data was collected by means of an interview setting, where participants were interviewed by fieldworkers using pre- designed and tested questionnaires. The follow up was conducted on the days following. The participants answered a three set of questionnaires including, a Socio-demographic Questionnaire (Annexure D), a Food Frequency Questionnaire (Annexure F), 24-Hour Recall questionnaires (Annexure E). The anthropometric measurements were taken in order to determine the BMI status of the participants. The participants were weighed using a Physician Scale for weight, the Stadiometer for height and non- stretchable measuring tape for waist circumference. The north and the south sections of the township were both affected by unemployment, showing worrying rates that also corresponded with other studies illustrating that unemployment is a challenge in South Africa. The unemployment rate in the north section was very high, sitting at 78.5%, compared to the south section at 63.1%; even so both these communities are economically challenged. Food insecurity was more prevalent in the north section as 36.9% of the participants reported always not having enough money to purchase food whilst 0.8% of the participants in the south section reported the same, concluding that the north section is more vulnerable to hunger leading to malnutrition and poverty. The education status of the participants in the north section was a point of concern as only 3.1% of the participants had graduated while almost 29.2% in the south section had graduated; this illustrates a very clear difference, which might also be due to unemployed household caregivers who cannot afford further education. The mean Food Variety Scores (FVS) (±SD) for the north section for all food consumed from the various food groups during seven days was 34.44 (±8.419) and for the south section it was 33.87 (±10.670), indicating a medium food variety score where both sections had a good dietary diversity score ranging from 7-9 food groups, summarising the food group diversity as being in the majority in the north section at 63.85% (n=83) while in south section it was 60.77% (n=79). The results of the energy distribution of macronutrients from the average of the 24-hr recall results when compared to the WHO dietary factor goals showed that the participants’ diet was well balanced in terms of macronutrient intake for both sections while the diet for both sections was lacking in micronutrient intake. The results of the women caregivers for both the north and the south sections illustrated a high consumption of the following foods out of the top twenty foods consumed by the community. The foods mostly consumed included sugar, maize, bread and rice for both the 19-30 and 31- 50 years age groups ranging from 195.15-248.82g for maize, 17.61-18.90g for sugar, 82.73- 108.16g for bread and 127.14-131.69g for rice, meaning that the respondents’ diet was high in calorie intake, hence the doubled DRIs for carbohydrate. Overweight and obesity tests showed alarming results as the majority (56.15%) of women caregivers in the north section were found to be obese while 63.8% of the women in the south section fell into the obesity classification, showing that the women caregivers for both sections are at risk of obesity related illnesses (NCDs). The results for waist circumference showed that 71.53% and 78.46% of the women in the north and south sections respectively were above the waist circumference cut-off point (≥88cm). When the weight-for-height ratio was measured for the whole sample most of the women caregivers (69.23%) were found to be at risk of developing metabolic syndrome. The food consumption patterns illustrated in the study corresponded significantly with the results found. Both the communities consumed a diet high in caloric and fat intake but was low in fruit and vegetable intake. This leads to obesity, resulting in non-communicable diseases as well as micro-deficiencies, leading to malnutrition because of the lack of variety in the food consumed by the population. The lack of food variety is the result of not having enough money for food purchases, explaining the question why the community cannot meet the DRIs as a result of unemployment and poverty as well as a lack of nutrition education. With that said the two communities did not show much of a difference in lifestyle and food choices being made except for the education level that was low for the north section and a bit higher for the south section, as well as livelihoods that also showed that the north section was at a lower economic level than the south section but both the sections were at risk of malnutrition and poverty and needed the same intervention in terms of assistance. In the study it was recommended that policies drafted by the government and stakeholders should be focused and tailored more on women caregiver headed households. More nutrition knowledge should be geared towards educating the most vulnerable and poverty stricken communities. The micronutrient intake must be promoted at lower and middle income communities. The agricultural sector needs to recognise and promote women farmers as well as offer assistance in order to grow their standing as farmers. The government should devise and implement projects that empower women so that they not dependent on their male counterparts.
Food insecurity and nutritional status relating to chronic disease of elderly caregivers within the rural households of Mpharane in Lesotho
(2016) Mothepu, Lisebo; Napier, Carin E.; Duffy, Kevin Jan
Rational and Objectives The objective of this study was to determine socio-demographic, socio-economic, health status, dietary diversity, nutrition adequacy, food consumption patterns, coping strategies, and agricultural practices in relation to food insecurity and nutritional status of elderly population in Mpharane. Methodology The sample size was n=260 participants with 75 men and 185 women. A variety of variables were used to measure the objectives and different types of questionnaires were used as measuring instruments for all the variables of the study. Socio-demographic questionnaires determined household indicators like age, employment status, and number of dependents, living conditions and assets. Anthropometrics measurements that were conducted included height, weight and blood pressure. Health status questionnaires included indictors such as consumption of alcohol, smoking, food allergies and affected parts of the body. Food frequency score, dietary intake and nutrition adequacy were established. Coping strategies in the household were determined for the period of food insecurity. Agricultural practices questionnaires were to determined household indictors like land, types of crops and livestock. The completed Socio-demographic Questionnaires, Health Questionnaires, Food Frequency Questionnaires, Anthropometric Measurements Forms, Coping Strategies Questionnaires and the Agricultural Practices Questionnaire were captured on a Microsoft Excel® Spreadsheet by the researcher and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 21.0, with the assistance of a statistician. Results Results indicated that all participants resided with grandchildren. Majority of grandmothers headed the households. All participants were unemployed and 61.20% often had shortage of money to buy food. Nutrient analysis from 24-Hour Food Recall indicated deficient intake in energy, calcium and vitamin A. There were high levels of food insecurity among the participants since all the participants used all 15 coping strategies. The Body Mass Index (BMI) results indicated 65.50% of participants were overweight, 60.70% obese and 13.60% were underweight. Majority of participants had access to land for plantation. All Participants suffered from various health aliments. The history of health associated with diseases indicating that 24.60% (n=64) of the participants had reported skin diseases, 71.20% (n=185) of the participants suffered from diseases of skeleton or joints and 81.90% (n=213) of the participants indicated affected eyes, ears, nose and teeth. Diseases of the chest or respiratory system were experienced by 50.80% (n=132) of the participants. The total fat intake of all the groups was slightly below the recommended goal by the World Health Organization WHO (15-30%), with men obtaining 13.33% and women 12.55% of energy from fat. Carbohydrates contributed 75.12% for men and 75.41% for women of the daily energy needs in the groups, slightly above the levels recommended by the WHO (55-75%). The contribution of protein to total daily energy intake for all the groups was within the recommendation of 10-15%, men (11.56%) and women (12.07%). As a result this proves that the average participant consumed a balanced diet in terms of the macronutrient intake. Carbohydrates were the main source of food consumption. The highest number of individual foods consumed by the majority of the participants was between 6-10 individual foods (53.46%, n=139) followed by 11-15 individual foods (39.23%, n=102). The mean Food Variety Score (FVS) (±SD) for all the foods consumed from the food groups during seven days was 10.06 (±6.726), which indicated a low food variety score. The food group with the most variety was the cereal group. Seven different cereals were consumed by (1.53%, n=4) participants, a large number of the participants (31.15%, n=81) only consumed 3 different cereals within seven day period and (23.46%, n=61) of the participants consumed 4 different cereals. Conclusion The grandparents were the principle providers for the grandchildren and the demographic pressures, unemployment and old age increased the financial strains which contributed to high levels of poverty resulting in food and nutrition insecurity and poor nutritional status of the elderly people.
Food security and coping strategies of a rural community within the Valley of a Thousand Hills
(2014) Felt, Leigh; Napier, Carin E.
Food security is a global concern and the insecurity thereof is prevalent in South Africa even though the country is deemed to be secure in terms of food availability. The study was conducted to determine the socio-economic, health and nutrition and food security status of the community living in the Valley of a Thousand Hills in KwaZulu Natal, in addition to analysing their coping strategies. Two hundred and fifty seven respondents were required to participate in this study. Data were collected by interviewing the respondents using pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaires; socio demographic questionnaires, dietary intake questionnaires- namely 24 hour recall and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) and the coping strategy questionnaires were used. Lastly anthropometric measurements were taken to determine BMI. A prevalence of extreme poverty exists as a magnitude of the high unemployment rate, out of which 75.8% had been unemployed for more than 3 years. The household monthly income was less than R500 per month for 37.3% of the respondents. The mean Food Variety Scores (FVS) (±SD) for all foods consumed from the food groups during seven days was 22.45 (±10.32), indicating a low food variety score. In this study the food group diversity is summarized as the majority of the respondents (91.1%, n=226) being classified with a good dietary diversity score using 6-9 food groups. The mean of the three 24-Hour recall nutrient analysis indicated a deficient intake by both men and women in all of the nutrients (100% of the men and women could not meet the DRI’s for energy and calcium) except for the mean (±SD) carbohydrate intake by men aged 19-50 (214.71 ± 80.22). The main source of food intake was from the carbohydrate food group with an insufficient intake of animal products, dairy products and fruits and vegetables respectively; contributing to the macro and micro nutrient inadequacies. Ninety six percent of this community experienced some level of food insecurity with the worst Coping Strategy Index food insecurity score being 117 out of a possible 175. Four percent of this community was classified as being food secure. Overweight and obesity were the most exceptional anthropometric features by the women respondents with 26.5% (n=66) being overweight and 57% (n=142) obese. The men’s anthropometric features were predominantly normal weight. This study has established poverty and unemployment as being the principal contributors for the food insecurity experienced by the populace and poor dietary intakes. The low food variety diet consumed by the respondents resulted in the DRI’s not achieved for most nutrients. The majority of the respondents only consumed two meals a day, as a coping strategy to reduce/prevent temporary food insecurity. Intervention strategies are needed to improve the food security status and dietary intake of the community members to overcome the crisis of malnutrition.
Food security and coping strategies of an urban community in Durban
(2016) Mtolo, Andile; Napier, Carin E.
Introduction: Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO 2015a) estimated that 220 million people (23.2%) in Sub-Saharan Africa were undernourished. Parallel to hunger, obesity rates have more than doubled globally since 1980; in 2014, 1.9 billion adults in the world were overweight and 600 million were obese (FAO 2015a). Obesity is a serious concern facing the world today and a major contributor to chronic disease such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease, which are often fatal (Bray, Frühbeck, Ryan and Wilding 2016: 1947). In South Africa, overweight and obesity have reached unacceptable numbers as over 60% of South Africans are overweight or obese. Furthermore, in 2015 South Africa was declared the fattest nation in Sub-Saharan Africa, adding another burden to the HIV epidemic (Ng, Fleming, Robinson, Thomson, Graetz, Margono, Mullany, Biryukov, Abbafati and Abera 2014: 777). Unemployment is one of the major factors that drive household food insecurity due to the fact that most people access food commercially. Therefore, income is a significant factor in ensuring that a healthy and nutritious diet is consumed regularly. The study community was at Umbilo, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal in a government owned estate called Kenneth Gardens. The estate has 286 units and accommodates approximately 1500–1800 residents. It formed part of an extensive network of cluster housing schemes developed by the apartheid government as a protectionist strategy to provide safe and affordable housing for poor and working class whites. Kenneth Gardens is currently managed by KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province and offers subsidized housing to residents from diverse background. Residents are low income bracket earners and many rely on state disability and pension grants for survival. Kenneth Gardens faces a wide range of social problems such as alcohol, drug abuse, domestic violence, unemployment and limited access to education (Marks 2013:26). Aim: The aim of the study was to determine the food security status, coping strategies, food intake and the nutritional status of the Kenneth Gardens community, which is situated in an urban area in KwaZulu-Natal. Methodology: One hundred and fifty (n=150) randomly selected caregivers participated in the study. The sample size was calculated using a power calculation indicating that 150 participants represent a reliable sample. The sampling procedure was simply random sampling. This study was quantitative and partly qualitative and descriptive in nature therefore, different measuring instruments were used to collect relevant data. The research tools for various variables measurements included; food security questionnaire, anthropometric measurements, a socio-demographic questionnaire, a food frequency questionnaire, and 24-hour recall questionnaires conducted in triplicate. Food security coping strategies were documented through a focus group interview with the Kenneth Gardens community members to determine strategies used to address food scarcity. All participants were weighed and measured to determine body mass index (BMI), classified according to the World Health Organisation (WHO) cut-off points. Data for socio demographic, FFQ, anthropometric measurements, and coping strategies was captured by the researcher on Excel® Spread sheets and analysed by a statistician for descriptive statistics using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 17.0. Data for the 24-hour recall was captured and analysed by a nutrition professional using the MRC Food Finder® version 3.0 software, based on the South African composition tables. Results: The study population consisted of 150 households, including women (n=122) and men (n=28). The results revealed that the majority of households (52.7%, n=79) were headed by a mother, and only 40% (n=60) of households were headed by a father. Majority (47.3%, n=71) of the participants had completed matric and 7.3% (n=11) had tertiary education. English, (52%, n=78), was the most spoken home language, followed closely by Zulu, (43.3%, n=65). Thirty six percent (n=54) of the participants were unemployed and 26.7% (n=40) were employed; however over, 50% (n=40) of the employed participants were temporary. Twenty eight percent (n=42) of the participants earned less than R3000.00 per month and 31.3% (n=47) earned between R3000.00 and R6000.00 per month. Pensioners were 17.3% (n=26), who therefore received a government grant that ranges between R1500 and R1520 per month depending on the claimant’s age. The average household income was reported as R4429.20. The average number of people in the household was five, which equates to R6.00 per person per day. The results also revealed that 38% (n=57) of the household had a sole contributor to the household income; other households had two contributors (42.7, n=64) and 11.3% (n=17) had three contributors. Urban South Africans tend to purchase food as opposed to growing their own food. A lack of purchasing power results in food insecurity that eventually leads to malnutrition. The majority (56.6%, n=85) of the participants indicated a shortage of money to buy food and this inevitably leads and drive utilisation of coping strategies with high severity rate during periods of food scarcity. Bulk food was purchased once a month by the majority (68%, n=102) of the participants. The most commonly used coping strategy during periods of food scarcity was “Rely on less expensive and preferred food” with the mean score of 4.56 (±SD 2.772). The second used coping strategy was “Reduce the number of meals eaten in a day” with a mean score of 3.85 (±8.163), followed by “Contribute to a food stokvel in order to ensure food over a scarce period” (3.31, ±7.505) and “Restrict consumption by adults in order for small children to eat” (2.24, ±5.333). Utilisation of these food coping indicate a degree of food insecurity. The Body Mass Index (BMI) classification indicated that women had a higher (31.46 ±8.474) BMI than men (26.00±5.445). A total of 26.2% (n =32) women were overweight and 51.7% were obese category I, II and III. The mean BMI for the whole group was (30.44±8.261) which clearly demonstrated obesity. Nonetheless, men were not overweight; however 25% (n=7) were obese category I. Collectively, underweight was prevalent in women (3.3%, n=4) and men (3.6%, n= 1). The Food Variety Score was medium (31.91, ±10.573), which indicated a consumption of 30- 60 individual foods from four to five food groups during the seven day period; however the top 20 foods consumed from the 24-hour recall revealed that the diet was energy dense and the most consumed foods were primarily from the carbohydrate and fat group and a low consumption of fruits and vegetables was reported; hence the nutrient analysis showed a deficient intake of several nutrients, such as: calcium, vitamin A, zinc, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, selenium and thiamine by both men and women. According to the WHO dietary factor goals, the acceptable macronutrient distribution ranges (AMDRs) and fruit and vegetable intake based on the 24-hour recalls, fat and protein intake exceeded the recommended 15-30 percent goal. Fruit and vegetable intake was very low in comparison to the minimum recommended intake of >400g. Carbohydrates intake for women were within the recommended 55-75 percent; however, men aged 19-50 years (50.70%) and >50 years (53.74%) did not meet the recommended intake. Conclusion: The results of this study reveal that the nutrition status of this community was compromised. The top 20 food intake indicated inadequate eating patterns and that diets comprised of energy dense foods, such as carbohydrates and fats, which could directly be responsible for the high obesity levels of >50% in women and >25% in men. Furthermore, there was low income and a high unemployment rate that proliferates the prevalence of food insecurity, hence the coping strategies reported. Malnutrition exists in communities as a result of food and nutrition insecurity which is affected by a significant number of factors that need to be considered and addressed. Nutrition interventions and nutrition education on a balanced diet, healthier methods of preparing food, and physical activity are required to ensure and improve health status, quality of life and better and sustainable coping strategies for our communities.
Household deprivation and its relationship to food intake and nutritional status of children 6-13 years in rural Queenstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa
(2020) Kupiso, Papama; Napier, Carin E.
The study was conducted among 200 children aged six to 13 years in rural Komani, formerly known as Queenstown within the district of the Enoch Mgijima local municipality in South Africa which includes Lesseyton, Birch Farm and Machibini. Three hundred and eighty five million children worldwide lived in extremely poor households, and 19.5% of children who live in developing countries lived on less than $1.90 a day. Children who lived in extremely poor households were found mostly in developing countries. Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest rates of children that lived in extreme poverty-stricken circumstances at just below 49.0%. Poverty in children results in many adverse effects such as stunted growth, lack of education, limited access to healthcare and nutrition. Aim: This research aimed to evaluate household deprivation using the acute multidimensional poverty index (AMDPI) and its relationship to the food intake and nutritional status of children aged 6-13 years. Methods: A valid and relevant socio-economic demographic questionnaire was completed in a face-to-face interview situation with the children’s parents and caregivers to determine the socio-economic demographic background of the participants. A valid and reliable food frequency questionnaire was also completed where the parents/ caregivers and the children were asked to identify foods that the children had consumed in the last seven days to determine the dietary diversity of the participants. In addition, the participant’s average anthropometric measurements were obtained by measuring the child’s weight and height in order to determine each participant’’s height-for-age and BMI-for-age and analysed using the WHO Anthroplus. Results: It was discovered that the majority (37.0%) of the households in the three rural areas of Komani (Queenstown) were headed by the grandmothers followed by the mothers (27.5%) and the fathers (20.0%). Food insecurity was prevalent in 83.6% of the households where the parent’s/ caregivers explained that they sometimes did not have money to purchase food. The low per capita income of the households of R12 07.94 - R18 030.00 per annum, compared to South Africa’s GDP per capita of $6.100 (R107 970) income, indicated that the households lived below the poverty line. These households achieved a mean acute multi-dimensional poverty index (AMPI) score of 24.72 out of the 30.0% cut-off point set by Alkire and Santos (2010), indicating that 82.4% of the households were poor. The mean energy intake for boys and girls (six to eight years) of 5474.23kJ was inadequate compared to the recommended Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) of 7316kJ and 6896kJ, whilst both boys and girls ages nine to 13 years met their EER. In addition, all the children exceeded the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for both protein and carbohydrate. However, none of the children met the Adequate Intake (AI) for total dietary fibre. This was evident in the top 20 foods consumed by the children with the cereal group food items, namely meal, samp and beans, rice and bread all being in the top ten most consumed foods, with fat-containing food items being evident in all three age categories; indicating that the children’s diets were mainly energy-dense. Overall, the total fruit and vegetable intake of the children was substantially poor measured against the recommended goal set by the WHO of ≥400g/day, with a per capita intake per day of 60.7g (children six to eight years), 51.1g (girls nine to 13 years), and 38.3g (boys nine to 13 years). Conclusion Factors such as unemployment, lack of education and poverty all contributed to household food insecurity and poor dietary intake. This was also evident in the children’s low fruit and vegetable intake with a high intake in carbohydrate-based food items such as maize, bread, potatoes, samp and beans, indicating that the group consumed a low food variety. Although only a low prevalence of malnutrition was found in the children, many of the households were food insecure, this was further indicated by the low per capita income and low AMPI score achieved by the households, which meant that, according to the Alkire-Foster method, the households were acute multi-dimensionally poor.
The impact of an orange-fleshed sweet potato yoghurt on the nutritional status of pre-school children in Durban, South Africa
(2022-03-16) Makanjana, Onwaba Z.; Napier, Carin E.; Naicker, Ashika
Background: Malnutrition exists globally due to various factors including basic, underlying and immediate factors. Goal two of the global targets in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is to end hunger and ensure that even the poorest people have access to sufficient, nutritious and safe food all year round. The Department of Social Development (DSD) in South Africa identified Early Child Development (ECD) centres as an ideal platform for implementing strategies aimed at improving the wellbeing of children below five years of age. ECD centres are facilities designed to provide early childhood development services and programmes that include good health, proper nutrition and early learning, through a holistic approach in promoting a healthy environment that is conducive for learning and development. Rationale and objectives: The health and nutritional status of young children is a global priority, as indicated in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The arguments in favour of promoting the development of children at a very young age are clear and compelling. Effective interventions aimed at the vulnerable groups can make a positive contribution towards the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 which aims to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. Inadequate nutrition in young children not only affects physical growth and development, but mental functioning as well. The pre-school years are associated with a phase of rapid growth. Adequate nutrition during the pre-school years is critical as proper nutrition plays an essential role in preventing malnutrition and other childhood-related diseases. Dietary diversification is one of the most effective strategies in preventing malnutrition and it is recommended that it is implemented during the stage of complementary feeding. Diets lacking dietary diversity lead to inadequate intake of vital nutrients such as vitamin A and iron, which may result in micronutrient deficiencies. Vitamin A and iron deficiencies are common among pre-school children in South Africa (SA) and the orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) was identified as a potentially effective strategies to address vitamin A deficiency (VAD). The purpose of the study was to determine the nutrient intake, to develop and test the impact of an OFSP yoghurt on nutritional status of pre-school children in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, SA, by determining the vitamin A and iron status of preschool children. The objectives of the study were to establish the socio-demographic profile of the children, to take anthropometric measurements (weight and height) to establish their nutritional status, to assess the dietary intake using a 24-hour recall questionnaire, (which was repeated three times) and a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Furthermore, the study also aimed to determine the levels of vitamin A and iron in the blood at the time of the study using the finger-prick dried blood spot method, develop a yoghurt using an OFSP, administer the yoghurt as an intervention for three consecutive months and thereafter test the impact of the yoghurt on the nutritional status of the participants. Methodology: In this intervention trial, two ECD centres, an experimental group (EG) and control group (CG) comprising of 116 children aged 24–60 months were randomly selected. In each group, the participants were stratified according to age: 24–47 months and 48–60 months. At baseline, through the caregiver of the child participant, socio-demographic data was captured, and dietary intake was measured through three 24-hour dietary recall questionnaires, which were then analysed using Food Finder® software version 3.0 developed by the South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC). The food frequency questionnaire was used to calculate the food variety and food group diversity scores. Anthropometric measurements (weight and height) were taken and the World Health Organization (WHO) Anthro software® version 3.1 was used to convert these into nutritional data indices. Blood samples were collected through dried blood spot cards in order to determine serum retinol and haemoglobin (Hb) levels, which were assessed using the WHO indicators. A yoghurt with OFSP was developed following the steps of product development. The participants in the EG were given 100g of the developed OFSP yoghurt daily for three months, while the participants in the CG were given 100g of a peach flavoured yoghurt bought from the supermarket daily for three months, excluding weekends. The peach flavour was chosen for the CG as the colour was closest to the developed OFSP yoghurt. After the intervention period, anthropometric measurements were taken, dietary intake was assessed and blood samples were taken to assess impact on serum retinol and Hb levels. Results: Regarding the socio-demographic profile, unemployment was high, as 45.6% (n=36) and 54.1% (n=20) of the participants in the EG and CG respectively, were unemployed. In terms of household characteristics, 45.6% (n=36) of the participants in the EG and 32.4% (n= 12) in the CG had a tap inside the house. Access to a flush/sewage toilet was very limited in both groups, as less than half of participants had a flush toilet (39.2%; n=31) and 40.5% (n=15) in EG and CG, respectively) and more than half of the participants had a pit latrine (60.8%; n=48) in the EG and 59.5% (n= 22) in the CG. At baseline, anthropometric results in the current study showed that 16.6% (n=2) of CG girls 48-60 months of age were stunted. Among boys, 10.5% (n=12) and 36.4% (n=4) of EG and CG boys 48-60 months of age respectively, were stunted. No change was noted among EG boys 24-47 months of age of age, as 4.8% (n=1) were severely stunted at baseline and at endline. At baseline, 8.7% (n=2) of EG girls 24-47 months of age were overweight. In the CG group, 28.6% (n=2) and 16.7% (n=2) of girls 24-47 months of age and 48-60 months of age, respectively, were overweight. Furthermore, 9.5% (n=2) of EG boys and 42.8% (n=3) of CG boys 24-47 months of age were overweight. The prevalence of overweight among boys 48-80 months of age was 10.5% (n=2) and 27.3% (n=3) in the EG and CG, respectively. The prevalence of the risk of overweight increased from 21.7% (n=5) among EG girls 24-47 months of age at baseline to 45.0% (n=9) at endline and from 14.3% (n=1) to 28.6% (n=2) in the CG group. In the CG, an increase in the prevalence of the risk of overweight was noted among boys 48-60 months of age from 36.3% (n=4) at baseline to 54.5% (n=6) at endline. At baseline, the energy intake of girls and boys 24-47 months of age was more than the estimated energy requirement (EER) for both groups, whereas for the 48-60 month age group, it was less than the EER. The mean intake of fibre and calcium was lower than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for all groups and most participants consumed less than the RDA for fibre and calcium. The mean fruit and vegetable intake was less than the WHO recommendation of 320g to 480g per day for 24-47 month old children, and 400g to 480g for 48-60 month old children for all participants in the current study, and there was low variety in both groups. When comparing baseline with endline results between age groups within a group, there was a decrease in energy intake in all groups. Significant differences were found among EG girls 24-47 months of age (p=0.008) and CG girls (p=0.003 for 24-47 months and p˂0.001 for 48-60 months) for energy intake. Furthermore, baseline results showed that 2.7% (n=2) and 14.3% (n=3) of participants had low serum retinol levels in the EG and CG, respectively. At endline, serum retinol increased in 5.5% (n=3) of participants in the EG and 4.5% (n=1) in the CG. Low Hb levels were found in 19.2% (n=14) of participants in the EG and 32.1% (n=9) in the CG. At endline, Hb levels increased in 3.7% (n=2) and 9.0% (n=2) of participants in the EG and CG, respectively. Conclusion: Despite the numerous efforts to improve the nutritional status of children, a high prevalence of malnutrition still exists in South Africa. Consumption of the OFSP yoghurt made a small contribution to dietary vitamin A intake for some participants and iron intake levels did not increase from baseline to endline. The intervention period was too short to show an impact on anthropometric measurements such as stunting. The socio-demographic profile indicated that participants were predominantly from low-income households, and deprived of some essential sanitation services. Other issues in the current study population included overcrowding and high unemployment, with some households running out of money to buy food. The diet of the participants, was sub-optimal for optimum growth. Malnutrition, presented through micronutrient deficiencies, stunting, overweight and obesity, co-exist in this vulnerable population.
Laccase-mediated biotransformation of phenolic compounds for the synthesis of new antioxidants
(2020) Mazibuko, Bodine; Kudanga, Tukayi
The increased incidences, mortality rate and economic impact of noncommunicable diseases (e.g. high blood pressure and diabetes) associated with oxidative stress, have led to the higher demand for antioxidant supplements for their prevention. The use of naturally occurring antioxidants is becoming a more attractive option due to the health risks associated with synthetic antioxidants. Phenolic compounds from plants have been shown to have antioxidant properties with the potential to be used as substitutes to synthetic antioxidants. However, monomeric phenolic compounds have several short comings such as low bioavailability, poor solubility, and low antioxidant capacity while some have pro-oxidant properties at high concentrations. Hence there has been increasing research focused on the biotransformation of these phenolic antioxidants through enzymatic oligomerisation to higher molecular weight compounds with improved antioxidant capacity and stability. Of the investigated enzymes, laccases have shown the most promise owing to their green catalytic properties. Their reaction mechanism involves the use of molecular oxygen as a co- substrate in oxidising phenolic compounds to corresponding radicals, with water as the only by- product. This study focused on the synthesis of antioxidants with enhanced antioxidant capacity using a laccase from Trametes pubescens as biocatalyst. To establish the potential of the phenolic compounds for use as substrates for the coupling reactions, a preliminary screening process was done. Guaiacol, caffeic acid, vanillic acid, eugenol, catechol, gallic acid, ferulic acid and quercetin hydrate were identified as suitable substrates for the laccase enzyme. However, only products from eugenol, coumaric acid and quercetin could be isolated, hence coupling reactions were carried out using these substrates in monophasic systems. Reaction products were monitored using thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Purification was carried out using preparative TLC and characterisation using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The antioxidant capacities of reaction products were determined using ABTS (2,2’-Azinobis 3- ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and FRAP (ferric- reducing antioxidant power) assays. Quercetin hydrate oxidation produced one product which was purified and characterised. The product had an Rf of 0.68, tR 13.567 and m/z 601 in negative mode, indicating that it was a dimeric form of quercetin. Oxidation of ρ-coumaric acid resulted in the production of two products designated P1 (Rf 0.47) and P2 (Rf 0.42). Further characterisation was done on product P2 since product P1 could not be successfully purified. P2 had a retention time of 11.295 and m/z 325, indicating that it was a dimer of ρ-coumaric. The ρ-coumaric dimer had an enhanced antioxidant capacity, approximately 2-fold, 3-fold and 6-fold higher compared to the substrate, as demonstrated by the ABTS, DPPH and FRAP assays, respectively. A symmetrical 5-5 eugenol dimer (m/z 325, [M] =326), bis-eugenol, was produced from eugenol oxidation. Maximum product formation (50% yield) was obtained in a monophasic system with 40% v/v dioxane as co-solvent after incubation for 18 h. The bis- eugenol dimer had an improved antioxidant capacity of up to three and four times that of eugenol as demonstrated by the ABTS and DPPH assays, respectively. In conclusion, two dimers with high antioxidant capacity were successfully produced, purified and characterised. The study has demonstrated the potential of the T. pubescens laccase as a catalyst for the synthesis of phenolic compounds with enhanced antioxidant capacity.
Nutritional adequacy of menus offered to children of 2 to 5 years in registered child care facilities in Inanda
(2015) Nzama, Phindile Favourite; Napier, Carin E.
Introduction: According to the American Dietetic Association, Child care facilities (CCFs) play an essential role in the nutritional status of children as children typically spend 4-8 hours a day at a facility. As a result, the meals should provide at least 50 – 60% of daily nutritional requirements. Worldwide CCF feeding has been found to be nutritionally inadequate as energy and most micronutrient requirements are not met by the meals provided, due to the lack of nutrition knowledge of the caregivers. Studies have shown that with appropriate training there has been improvement in nutritional standards. Aim: The aim of this study was to analyse the nutritional adequacy of menus offered; and to determine the nutritional status of children aged two to five years old in registered child care facilities in the Inanda area. Methodology: CCFs (n=10) in the Inanda area were randomly selected from multiple options to participate in the study. This study was conducted on children (boys (n= 91) and girls (n=109)) of ages two to five years old. Trained fieldworkers and teachers assisted in interviewing parents to complete the socio-demographic questionnaire. The researcher gathered menus and recipes for analysis, using Foodfinder Version 3 Software. The researcher also conducted plate-waste studies to determine consumption patterns during CCF meal times. Anthropometric measurements for weight and height were collected. In order to establish BMI-for-age and height-for-age, the WHO Anthro Software and WHO AnthroPlus Software were used. Ten food handlers (FHs) were interviewed by the researcher on food preparation and serving. Results: Most children (79.40%) originate from extended families that are female-headed. The highest form of education attained by most caregivers in the sample is standard 10 (47.74%) and 45.73% are unemployed. Of the 54.27% employed, 64.71% are informally employed. Most respondents (72.87%) are living on a total household income of less than R2500. The anthropometric results of the children show very low prevalence of severe stunting (1.74%) and stunting (5.42%). Less than halve (34.48%) of the children were at a possible risk of being overweight, 13.79% were overweight and 2.46% obese. The top 20 foods served in CCFs in Inanda were cereal-based staples of rice and maize meal more frequently than meat, dairy products and fruit and vegetables – all served far less frequently. All the CCFs did not meet the 60% of daily requirements for energy, fibre, calcium and vitamin C in foods served. The CCFs have well-equipped, designated kitchens for food storage, preparation, serving and good hygiene practices. Conclusion: Meals served to two to five year olds in registered CCFs in the Inanda area are nutritionally inadequate as most facilities do not contain 60% of the daily nutrient requirements from both daily meals served. Recommendations: CCF owners and Food handlers should receive proper training and retraining on food safety and hygiene and menu planning. The government should increase the subsidy to CCFs in order to meet the nutritional needs of children in order to aid in the alleviation of under-nutrition.
Preparation, isolation and characterization of nanocellulose from sugarcane bagasse
(2016) Mashego, Ditiro Victor; Deenadayalu, Nirmala
Cellulose is a sustainable, abundant biopolymer derived from a variety of living species such as plants, animals, bacteria and some amoebas. An attractive source of cellulose for industrial uses is agricultural waste, as this use does not jeopardize food supplies and improves the local rural economy. Sugarcane bagasse (SCB) is one of the main biomass wastes from sugar production and represents 30–40 wt % of sugar production waste. In 2008, South Africa produced on average 22 million tons of sugar cane each season from 14 sugar mill supply areas which resulted in 7,9 million tons of “waste” bagasse. In this study cellulose nanocrystals were prepared from soda pulped sugarcane bagasse by acid hydrolysis followed by separation using centrifugation, ultrasonication and dialysis. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) images showed nanocrystals of approximately 300 nm in length and 20 nm in width. Thermogravimetric Analysis and Differential Thermogravimetry (TGA and DTG) profiles of FD CNC, MCC and Pulped bagasse all had characteristic onset and decomposition temperatures indicating a change in the structure after chemical treatments. Particle size distribution measurements corroborated with the TEM and FE - SEM results and showed that the majority of the nanocrystals were in the 100 – 300 nm range. Attenuated Total Reflectance – Fourier Transform Infra Red (ATR - FTIR) analysis showed functional group changes as the amorphous regions of the polymer were removed revealing the ordered crystalline portions. These were further confirmed by an increase in the Lateral Orientation Index (LOI) of the samples as the nanocrystals were isolated. X - Ray Diffraction (XRD) Crystallinity Index (CrI) calculations showed a steady increase in the crystallinity of the materials from pulped bagasse to MCC to FD CNC.
The relationship between infant feeding practices, caregivers’ nutrition knowledge and nutritional status of infants aged between 6 to 12 months in a rural community in Zimbabwe
(2022-09) Pfumvuti, Lynn; Napier, Carin E.
Introduction Undernourishment affects a child's potential lifespan from the beginning according to United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 2014: 18), and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI 2014: 7) noted at the time that 11% of African Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was lost to malnutrition, thereby justifying the urgent need to fight it. Malnutrition in the early stages of growth of an infant could cause irreversible damage to their metabolism, which would cause their health to deteriorate especially when children consumed high-energy, low-nutrient diets later in life which was common in developing countries, and this could result in adults being susceptible to noncommunicable diseases like hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and Type 2 diabetes (Prendergast and Humphrey 2014: 250). Globally, 150.8 million children were recorded to be affected by stunting in 2017 (UNICEF/WHO/World Bank 2018: 1) and the United Nations stated that sub-Saharan Africa accounted for one-third of stunted children (UNICEF/WHO/World Bank 2020: 3). Child malnutrition is at a high level in sub-Saharan Africa (Akombi, Agho, Merom, Renzaho and Hall 2017: 1) and it is one of the main health issues especially in low–medium income countries (UNICEF 2015: 3). Poor infant feeding practices have been an endemic problem in sub-Saharan Africa for many years and this has led to malnutrition (Onyango, Borghi, De Onis, Casanovas and Garza 2013:1975). These practices have stemmed in part from the lack of nutrition knowledge on the part of caregivers and have resulted in improper weaning which has been one of the contributing factors to the persistence of malnutrition (Bewket, Welday, Mehretie and Abebe 2017: 10). Thus, poor feeding practices have significantly contributed to the high levels of malnutrition, diarrhoea and poor growth of infants, even leading to death. In Zimbabwe, only eight percent of children aged 6-23 months eat an acceptable diet (Zimbabwe Demographic Health Surveys 2015: 200). Multiple factors could cause infant malnutrition such as poverty, food insecurity and drought but this study looked specifically at the role that caregivers play in the feeding of infants in the village of Munjinga North (Ward 14) in Mashonaland West Province in Zimbabwe. Methods This was a cross-sectional study conducted in a rural community in Zimbabwe. The participants in this study included a sample of 100 purposively selected caregivers caring for infants between the ages of 6–12 months. The study was descriptive and quantitative in nature with different measuring instruments used to measure the sample population. The research tools used included a socio-demographic questionnaire, where the multidimensional poverty index (MPI) was calculated; anthropometric measurements (weight, length and Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC)) were collected to give the Z-scores of the infants. A validated infant and young child feeding module and caregiver’s nutrition knowledge questionnaire were also completed. The food security coping strategy questionnaire was completed to find out about the mechanisms that the community used to adapt feeding practices during periods of food shortage in their households. Data was captured by the researcher on Excel® spreadsheets and analysed using descriptive statistics using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows version 25. The anthropometrics data was analysed using WHO Anthro version 3.2.2 Results The sampling technique used in this study resulted in n=100 participants, and as the participants’ number of 100 is equal to the percentage, the percentages are not presented separately. All the caregivers were female and responsible for 37% (n=37) female infants and 63% (n=63) male infants. Most of the caregivers (90%) were the mothers of the infants whilst the remaining 10% were the grandmothers. The room density was 0.47, which showed that at least two members of the household shared a room. A significant number of the households(27%) had no toilet facilities, which compromised sanitation. Most of the women (55%) indicated that they had attained a secondary education but 98% of them were unemployed during the period of study with 55% doing piece jobs, which resulted in 92% of the families having a monthly income of between US$1 – US$100 and surviving below the Food Poverty Line for one person, which was recorded at US$31.20 per person in Zimbabwe in 2017. When measuring this community against the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index, health contributed 24.4%, education contributed 16.4% and standard of living contributed 59.2% to the poverty index. The final MPI score was 40.9%, which was well above the cut-off point of 30% and this indicated that the community of Munjinga North is living in poverty. The anthropometric measurements indicated that there is a prevalence of stunting (55%), wasting (7%), and underweight (33%) in the infants. MUAC was used to determine the level of malnutrition in the community and 23% of the infants were found to have a MUAC below -2 and -3 on the Z-score. The Z-scores for MUAC and length-for-age had a statistical significance of (p=0.01). All the infants were breastfed at birth and 95% were still breastfeeding at the time of the study. The infants were timeously introduced to solids, semisolids and soft foods (96%) and those who received a minimum meal frequency made up 81%. Minimum dietary diversity was accomplished by 36% of the participants, with 25% receiving the minimum acceptable diet. Most of the caregivers (78%) had not received training on infant nutrition hence 95% of them did not know the importance of complementary feeding. Those who had partial knowledge on the importance of breastfeeding made up 51% whilst 62% knew what exclusive breastfeeding meant. The level of training was compared to the MUAC, and a statistical significance (p=0.05) was established. The most commonly used coping strategy was to restrict the consumption by adults for children to eat with a mean score of 8.88(SD±8.572); the second most common strategy was to reduce the mothers’ consumption for the sake of the children with a mean score of 7.16 (SD±6.15), followed by buying food on credit with a mean score of 2.11 (SD±3.066). Conclusion The average age of the infants who participated in this research was nine months. The MPI score calculated showed that the Munjinga North Ward 14 community is living in chronic poverty. They are deprived of basic necessities such as electricity and safe water to drink. The health score signified a risk of raising malnourished children in the community and it was already manifesting as 23% of the infants were found to be malnourished. The majority of the households are living on an income below the poverty datum line. All the infants were breastfed at birth and the majority were still being breastfed at the time of the research; however, it was shown that only a few of the caregivers knew about the importance of breast milk and why they were breastfeeding their infants. Many caregivers were breastfeeding their infants simply because they were told to do so by their elders. This indicated a lack of nutrition knowledge which would have significant repercussions when they weaned their children. The majority of the infants were being timeously introduced to complementary feeding, which, statistically, was a good sign as it showed that they were following the WHO guideline of exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months even though the majority of the mothers were unaware why they were encouraged to do so. The majority of infants were given two meals a day (thin porridge in the morning and in the evening) and since they were also being breastfed according to the WHO guidelines it indicated an ideal meal frequency, hence the high percentage of minimum meal frequency in the community. Although the meal frequency was high, the minimum dietary diversity and minimum acceptable diet statistics were low, signifying that the infants were being introduced to foods with compromised quality. The food lacked variety and indicated deficiency in some macronutrients and many micronutrients. The poor diet quality consumed by the infants would inevitably affect their growth and development. In this study, the signs were already visible with more than half of the infants being stunted and several wasted and malnourished. Although there could be other factors that contributed to malnutrition, the research findings confirmed that there was a relationship between infant feeding practices and caregivers’ nutrition knowledge, but knowledge was not a significant predictor of MUAC (nutrition health status) of the infants aged between 6-12 months. More attention needs to be given to the training of the caregivers on infant nutrition so that they can understand the need for healthy infant feeding practices, especially considering that the first 2,000 days of an infant’s life are the most critical.
Sociodemographic profile, nutritional status and dietaty intake of primary school children in Chesterville, KwaZulu-Natal
(2017) Mfeka, Portia Lungisile Nomathamsanqa; Napier, Carin E.
Aim: The main aim of this study was to profile the primary school children`s household socio-economic status and evaluate their nutritional status for a healthy and active live in Chesterville, outside Durban in KwaZulu-Natal. The sample comprised of 250 children (147 girls and 103 boys), aged between 4 to 8 years and 9 to 13 years who volunteered to participate in the study and school was randomly selected. Methodology: A quantitative research method was applied using various nutrition security assessment tools complemented by the socio-economic household profile to determine household`s ability to acquire food. Anthropometric status using WHO growth indicators assessed stunting, wasting and underweight status of the children. This was followed by the 24-hr recall and food frequency questionnaire to probe children`s diet diversity. Descriptive statistics was used to analyse data. Result: The anthropometric indices showed that 10.3% of the children were severely stunted (<-3SD height-for-age), 33.5% were stunted (<-2SD), 2.9% were severely wasted (<-3SD BMI-for age), 5.3% were wasted (<-2SD) with 68.5% at possible risk of overweight (>+1SD), 24.3% of the children were overweight is (>+2SD) and 5.6% were obese (>+3SD) according to the WHO z-scores. The results indicate the prevalence of obesity which could be a result of the high consumption of carbohydrate dense food in the group surveyed. The parents/ caregivers and the children need nutrition education on healthy eating habits to improve their lifestyle. The socio-demographic profile of the households indicated that 61% of the parents/ caregivers were unemployed and 39% were employed. Seventy three percent of the households were headed by women, 50% of the parents/ caregivers owned their homes, 63.6% had a tap inside the house and 94% had access to a flush toilet/sewerage system inside the house, 38% had passed grade 8 – the highest level of education, 14.4% of the parents/caregivers earned less than R2000 per month, and 10.4% earned less than R2500 per month. The low-income level, lack of post matric qualification in some of the parents /caregivers and the high unemployment rate of 61% could be a contributory factor to malnutrition in this community. Most of the parents/caregivers resided in the township and 94% lived in brick houses, while 35.6% lived in a shack that was built outside the house as an extension of the house. Most of the parents/caregivers (88%) purchased their food from a supermarket. Thirty-five-point two percent of the parents/ caregivers indicated not having enough money to spend on food, 32.8% indicated that often there is not enough money to spend on food, and 15% indicted that there is always not enough money to spend on food. Seventy-five-point two percent of the parents/ caregivers purchased their food once a month while 12.4% purchased their food once a week. Township South Africans tend to purchase food instead of growing their own food because of the lack of vegetating space. The lack of buying power and food shortages eventually leads to malnutrition. The lack of higher education in this community decreases the chances of permanent employment as a result the low-income bracket and the inability to purchase food in some occasions. The food group diversity score showed that 64% of the respondents consumed food from nine food groups. The carbohydrate group had the highest score (6.08±1.322) followed by the vegetable group (4.76±1.383) and the meat group (4.51±1.269). The mean carbohydrate intake was higher than the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) for girls and boys (>100% of the DRIs). The intake of fruit was lower than the >400g goal as recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). The consumption of fibre was low with both girls and boys consuming <100% of the fibre requirements. Iron was consumed by 54.6% of the girls in the required amount of 100% of the DRIs. The energy intake for both girls and boys was 7025.8±16278 and 7205.4± 1860.834 respectively. The girls’ consumption of protein was 11.9% and boys’ consumption was 11.4% and this is within the recommended 10-15% of the WHO. Conclusion: The results indicate both overnutrition and undernutrition in children that were part of the survey. The top 20 food intake indicated inadequate eating patterns and that diets consisted of energy dense foods, such as carbohydrates and fats which could be responsible for obesity in the children. The high unemployment and low-income rate and inadequate money to spend on food can contribute to the prevalence of stunting and wasting in the children. Nutrition education and nutrition interventions such as focus on healthier foods, healthier methods of preparing food, a balance diet and physical activity are necessary to improve quality of life and improve health.